PERMIAN MASS EXTINCTION SERIES 8: PERMIAN MARINE SPECIES 3) SHARKS

 

HELICOPRION & HAMMERHEADED SHARK

Permian Sharks

Helicoprion, freshwater Xenacanthus, and armored ctenacanths that thrived 299 to 252 million years ago before most were wiped out by the end-Permian mass extinction.

Iconic Permian Cartilaginous Fish

Helicoprion: Famous for its iconic, spiral "tooth buzzsaw" lower jaw structure, growing up to 270–290 million years ago. Though shark-like, it belonged to a sister lineage closer to modern chimaeras.

Xenacanthus: A specialized freshwater genus featuring a prominent spine on the back of its skull and unique two-pronged teeth, patrolling rivers and streams up to 5 meters long in places like Texas and Europe.

Ctenacanthiforms: Close cousins to modern sharks carrying large dorsal fin spines and heavy predatory teeth, with some early Permian species growing larger than modern great white sharks.Diablodontus: A smaller, 4-foot-long relative of Hybodus identified by paired spikes on its head, discovered in marine limestone formations in Arizona

The Tooth Whorl MysteryBuzzsaw Jaw:

Instead of standard rows of teeth, Helicoprion grew a tight, circular coil of serrated teeth in its lower jaw. As new teeth grew, the older ones were pushed into the center of the spiral.

Anatomical Placement: 

For decades, scientists argued over where the spiral went—some thought it was on the snout, back, or tail. Modern CT scans of preserved fossils proved it made up the entire inner curve of the lower jaw.No Upper Teeth: The creature had no teeth in its upper jaw, relying entirely on the lower scroll to slice through soft prey.Size and DietBody Length: Based on the size of the tooth whorls (which can reach up to 18 inches / 45 cm across), adults grew between 13 to 26 feet (4 to 8 meters) long, with rare mega-specimens potentially exceeding 30 feet.Diet: It primarily hunted soft-bodied marine animals like squid-like cephalopods, using the rolling teeth to hook and draw food back toward the throat

HELICOPRION SKELETON PICTURE

The End-Permian Extinction

Known as the "Great Dying" 252 million years ago, the end-Permian event eliminated over 90% of marine species, destroying the stability of Paleozoic shark and chondrichthyan diversity.Only a tiny fraction of stem-sharks and archaic lineages survived the catastrophe, eventually clearing evolutionary space for modern shark groups to emerge millions of years later.

HELICOPRION & HAMMERHEADED SHARK

PERMIAN SHARKS MAX FILE

PERMIAN MASS EXTINCTION SERIES 7: PERMIAN MARINE SPECIES 2) TRILOBITES

 

Permian trilobites were the last survivors of a once‑dominant Paleozoic group, reaching peak diversity in the Middle Permian before vanishing entirely in the end‑Permian mass extinction. They lived in varied marine habitats, from shallow sandy shelves to deeper muddy basins, and show fascinating preservation styles that reveal their ecology and demise.

🌊 Evolutionary Context

Trilobites dominated Paleozoic seas but had already declined by the Late Devonian.

Permian period (299–252 million years ago): A few resilient groups persisted, diversifying into multiple genera.

Extinction: All trilobites disappeared during the catastrophic end‑Permian extinction, the largest mass extinction in Earth’s history.

🐚 Key Genera and Species

Japan (Kamiyasse Formation):

Pseudophillipsia spatulifera – adaptable, lived in both sandy and muddy seafloors.

Pseudophillipsia raggycorcakensis – preferred sandy environments.

West Texas (Wolfcampian–Guadalupian strata):

Lower fauna: Ditomopyge decurtata, Triproetus angustus, Triproetus tumidus, Triproetus altasulcus.

Upper fauna: Delaria antiqua, Delaria granti, Delaria brevis, Delaria westexensis, Delaria chinatiensis, Novoameura vitrumons, Anisopyge perannulata, Anisopyge cooperi.

TRILOBITE FOSSIL

TRILOBITE FOSSIL

🏝️ Habitats and Preservation

Shallow marine shelves: Trilobites often buried by storm‑driven currents.

Deeper offshore mudstones: Skeletons frequently disarticulated due to burrowing organisms.

Preservation styles:

Fully intact specimens stretched out on seafloor.

Rolled into defensive balls (like modern woodlice).

Disarticulated fragments, especially pygidia (tail lobes).

📉 Decline and Extinction

Middle Permian peak: Highest trilobite genus diversity recorded.

Late Permian regression: Marine habitat loss led to extinction of endemic faunas (e.g., Texas basins).

End‑Permian extinction (~252 Ma): Final disappearance of trilobites, along with ~90% of marine species.

🔑 Quick Comparison Table

Region              Key Genera/Species                                                                     Habitat Preference                                                                    Fate

Japan (Kitakmi Terrane)   Pseudophillipsia spatulifera, P. raggycorcakensis    Sandy & muddy seafloors           Extinct at end‑Permian

West Texas (Wolfcampian–Guadalupian)       Ditomopyge, Triproetus, Delaria, Anisopyge            Shallow shelves → deep basins Extinct during Late Permian regression

Global            Multiple genera     Shallow to deep marine  Final extinction at end‑Permian

⚠️ Key Takeaway

Permian trilobites represent the last evolutionary chapter of trilobites, showing adaptability to diverse marine environments but ultimately succumbing to global ecological collapse. Their fossils provide critical insights into storm dynamics, seafloor ecology, and extinction processes at the close of the Paleozoic.

TRILOBITE MAX FILE1

TRILOBITEMAXFILE2

PERMIAN MASS EXTINCTION SERIES 6: PERMIAN MARINE SPECIES 1) AMMONITES

 

Ammonites in the Permian seas were diverse marine cephalopods that thrived as important index fossils, showing wide biogeographic distribution across Panthalassa and Paleotethys oceans. They evolved rapidly, with distinct faunal zones marking different stages of the Permian, but ultimately faced extinction during the end-Permian mass extinction.

🌊 Ammonites in the Permian Seas

General Characteristics

Ammonites (ammonoids) were marine mollusks related to modern squids and octopuses.

They had coiled, chambered shells used for buoyancy control.

In the Permian, ammonites were especially important for biostratigraphy (dating rock layers) due to their rapid evolution and wide distribution.

Evolutionary Trends

Early Permian (Cisuralian): Ammonites were less diverse, with simpler shell ornamentation.

Middle Permian (Guadalupian): Diversity increased significantly, with species like Waagenoceras, Adrianites, and Timorites marking distinct faunal zones.

AMMONITE -FOSSIL1

AMMONITE -FOSSIL2

AMMONITE -FOSSIL3

AMMONITE -FOSSILS 4

Late Permian (Lopingian): Ammonites became more specialized but faced ecological stress leading up to the end-Permian extinction.

Distribution & Ecology

Fossils found in Mexico, USA (Texas), Canada, Japan, China, and other regions show that ammonites were widespread across Panthalassa Ocean corridors connecting different marine realms.

They lived in open marine environments, feeding on small plankton and other marine organisms.

Their shells often show adaptations to different depths and ecological niches.

🧭 Biostratigraphic Importance

Ammonites are considered index fossils because:

They evolved quickly, producing many distinct species.

Their shells fossilized well, leaving abundant records.

Specific ammonite species define biozones (time intervals in rock layers), such as:

Waagenoceras dieneri – Adrianites elegans Biozone (Wordian stage).

Timorites schucherti – Cibolites uddeni Biozone (Capitanian stage).

⚠️ Extinction

Ammonites suffered heavily during the end-Permian mass extinction (~252 million years ago).

This event wiped out ~90% of marine species, including most ammonites.

Only a few lineages survived into the Triassic, where they diversified again.

📊 Quick Comparison Table

Period (Permian)    Ammonite Diversity         Key Species  Role in Stratigraphy

Early Permian         Low    Primitive forms      Limited

Middle Permian     High   Waagenoceras, Adrianites, Timorites Strong index fossils

Late Permian           Specialized, declining       Cibolites, Paraceltites            Biozones before extinction

✅ In summary: Ammonites in the Permian seas were widespread, diverse, and crucial for dating rock layers. They thrived in marine corridors across Panthalassa but were nearly wiped out during the catastrophic end-Permian extinction, marking one of the most dramatic evolutionary turnovers in Earth’s history.

PERMIAN MASS EXTINCTION SERIES 5: PERMIAN MASS EXTINCTION OF LAND ANIMALS IN 3D ANIMATION FORM

 

Permian–Triassic extinction event:

The Permian–Triassic extinction event, colloquially known as the Great Dying,was an extinction event that occurred around the boundary between the Permian and Triassic geologic periods, and with them the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras. It is Earth's most severe known extinction event, with the extinction of 57% of biological families, 62% of genera, 81% of marine species, and 70% of terrestrial vertebrate species. It is also the greatest known mass extinction of insects. It is the greatest of the "Big Five" mass extinctions of the Phanerozoic. There is evidence for one to three distinct pulses, or phases, of extinction, with the major pulse of marine extinction occurring in a 60,000-100,000 year interval around 251.902 million years ago (mya) marking the boundary between the Permian and Triassic periods. There is some controversy regarding the chronology of the extinctions on land and whether they are synchronous with the main marine extinction event.

LAND ANIMAL EXTINCTION DURING PERMIAN AGE DESCRIBE WITH 3D PICTURE:

4 LAND ANIMALS NAMED DIMETRODON SCUTOSAUR  LYSTRASAURAND INOSTANCERVIA ON THE PERMIAN PLANE WHERE VOLCANIC ERUPTION STARTED IN BACKGROUND ON SIBERIAN TRAPS

4 LAND ANIMALS NAMED DIMETRODON SCUTOSAUR  LYSTRASAURAND INOSTANCERVIA ON THE PERMIAN PLANE WHERE VOLCANIC ERUPTION GROW RAPIDLY IN BACKGROUND ON THE SIBERIAN TRAPS

4 LAND ANIMALS NAMED DIMETRODON SCUTOSAUR  LYSTRASAURAND INOSTANCERVIA ON THE PERMIAN PLANE WHERE DUE TO RAPID VOLCANIC ERUPTION PERMIAN PLAIN GRADUALLY COVERED WITH DEEP RED SMOKE WHICH CAUSES PANIC TO THE ALL LAND ANIMALS ON PERMIAN PLANE

4 LAND ANIMALS NAMED DIMETRODON SCUTOSAUR  LYSTRASAURAND INOSTANCERVIA ON THE PERMIAN PLANE WHERE DUE TO RAPID VOLCANIC ERUPTION THE PERMIAN PLAIN IS COVERED WITH DEEP RED SMOKE ERUPTION FIRE AND RED HOT MAGMA BURST OUT FROM THE EARTH

DUE TO RAPID VOLCANIC ERUPTION THE PERMIAN PLAIN IS COVERED WITH DEEP RED SMOKE ERUPTION FIRE AND RED HOT MAGMA BURST OUT FROM THE EARTH AND DUE TO THIS CATASTROPIC EVENT MOST OF THE LAND ANIMALS DIED.

DUE TO HUGE HEAT OF PERMIAN PLAIN AND ERUPTED LAVA THE DEAD BODIES LAND ANIMALS GRADUALLY EVAPORATED

DUE TO HUGE HEAT OF PERMIAN PLAIN AND ERUPTED LAVA THE DEAD BODIES LAND ANIMALS GRADUALLY EVAPORATED AND ULTIMATELY DISAPPEAR AND CONSUMED BY RED HOT LAVA.

The scientific consensus is that the main cause of the extinction was the flood basalt eruptions that created the Siberian Traps, which released sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide, resulting in euxinia (oxygen-starved, sulfurous oceans),[elevated global temperatures and acidified oceans. The level of atmospheric carbon dioxide rose from around 400 ppm to 2,500 ppm with approximately 3,900 to 12,000 gigatonnes of carbon being added to the ocean-atmosphere system during this period.

CAUSES OF PERMIAN MASS EXTINCTION

CAUSES OF PERMIAN MASS EXTINCTION

Several other contributing factors have been proposed, including the emission of carbon dioxide from the burning of oil and coal deposits ignited by the eruptions; emissions of methane from the gasification of methane clathrates ;emissions of methane by novel methanogenic microorganisms nourished by minerals dispersed in the eruptions; longer and more intense El Niño events; and an extraterrestrial impact that created the Araguainha crater and caused seismic release of methane and the destruction of the ozone layer with increased exposure to solar radiation

Dating:

Previously, it was thought that rock sequences spanning the Permian–Triassic boundary were too few and too incomplete for scientists to reliably determine their details. However, it is now possible to date the extinction with millennial precision. U–Pb zircon dates from five volcanic ash beds from the Global Stratotype Section and Point for the Permian–Triassic boundary at Meishan, China, establish a high-resolution age model for the extinction – allowing exploration of the links between global environmental perturbation, carbon cycle disruption, mass extinction, and recovery at millennial timescales. The first appearance of the conodont Hindeodus parvus has been used to delineate the Permian-Triassic boundary.

The extinction occurred between 251.941 ± 0.037 and 251.880 ± 0.031 million years ago, a duration of 60 ± 48 thousand years. A large, abrupt global decrease in δ13C, the ratio of the stable isotope carbon-13 to that of carbon-12, coincides with this extinction, and is sometimes used to identify the Permian–Triassic boundary and the Permian-Triassic Mass Extinction event (PTME) in rocks that are unsuitable for radiometric dating. The negative carbon isotope excursion's magnitude was 4–7% and lasted for approximately 500 kyr,though estimating its exact value is challenging due to diagenetic alteration of many sedimentary facies spanning the boundary.

Terrestrial vertebrates:

The tempo of the terrestrial vertebrate extinction is disputed. Some evidence from the Karoo Basin indicates a protracted extinction lasting a million years. Other evidence from the Karoo deposits suggest it took 50,000 years or less, while a study of coprolites in the Vyazniki fossil beds in Russia suggests it took only a few thousand years.Aridification induced by global warming was the chief culprit behind terrestrial vertebrate extinctions. High herbivore mortality in turn drove carnivore extinctions.There is evidence that over two thirds of terrestrial labyrinthodont amphibians, sauropsid ("reptile") and therapsid ("proto-mammal") taxa became extinct. Large herbivores suffered the heaviest losses.

4 LAND ANIMALS NAMED DIMETRODON SCUTOSAUR  LYSTRASAURAND INOSTANCERVIA ON THE PERMIAN VOLCANIC PLANE

All Permian anapsid reptiles died out except the procolophonids (although testudines have morphologically-anapsid skulls, they are now thought to have separately evolved from diapsid ancestors). Pelycosaurs died out before the end of the Permian. Too few Permian diapsid fossils have been found to support any conclusion about the effect of the Permian extinction on diapsids (the "reptile" group from which lizards, snakes, crocodilians, and dinosaurs (including birds) evolved). Tangasaurids were largely unaffected.The PTME represented the largest extinction of anomodonts in their evolutionary history.

Gorgonopsians INOSTANCERVIA SP   APEX PREDATOR SPECIES DURING PERMIAN

Gorgonopsians are conventionally thought to have gone extinct during the PTME, but some tentative evidence suggests they may have survived into the Triassic. Freshwater and euryhaline fishes, having experienced minimal diversity losses before the PTME, were unaffected during the PTME and actually appear to have increased in diversity across the Permian-Triassic boundary. However, faunal turnovers in freshwater fish communities occurred in areas like the Kuznetsk Basin.

DIMETRODON MAMMAL PREDATOR SPECIES

The groups that survived suffered extremely heavy losses of species, and some terrestrial vertebrate groups very nearly became extinct at the end of the Permian. Some of the surviving groups did not persist beyond this period, but others that barely survived went on to produce diverse and long-lasting lineages. However, it took 30 million years for the terrestrial vertebrate fauna to fully recover both numerically and ecologically.

LARGE HERBIVORE SCUTOSAUR SPECIES

It is difficult to estimate extinction and survival rates of land organisms because few terrestrial fossil beds span the Permian–Triassic boundary. The best-known record of vertebrate changes across the Permian–Triassic boundary occurs in the Karoo Supergroup of South Africa, but statistical analyses have so far not produced clear conclusions. 

ONLY FEW LYSTROSAURUS SURVIVED THE GREAT DYING

One study of the Karoo Basin found that 69% of terrestrial vertebrates went extinct over 300,000 years leading up to the Permian-Triassic boundary, followed by a minor extinction pulse involving four taxa that survived the previous extinction interval. Another study of the latest Permian vertebrates in the Karoo Basin found that 54% of them went extinct due to the PTME.

3DSMAX FILE OF PERMIAN EXTINCTION: